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If you want to learn more about the history and theory of polyphonic music, consider writing your own cantus firmus composition. A cantus firmus is a pre-existing melody that forms the basis of a polyphonic composition. It is usually a plainchant excerpt or a popular song sung by one voice, often the tenor, while other voices weave around it with different rhythms and melodies. A cantus firmus can have symbolic or musical significance and can be used to create unity and coherence in a complex musical texture. Some examples of composers who used cantus firmus technique are Dufay, Josquin, Palestrina and Bach.
One of the challenges of composing music is to create a coherent and expressive melodic line that fits well with the underlying harmonic structure. A melodic skeleton is a simplified melody that outlines the main notes and intervals defining the harmonic progression. It can help composers to create melodies that are consistent, logical and memorable.
A melodic skeleton can be derived from the chord tones, the notes that belong to each chord in the harmony.
For example, if the harmony is C major, G major, A minor and F major, the chord tones are C, E and G for C major; G, B and D for G major; A, C and E for A minor; and F, A and C for F major. These notes form the basic framework of the melody and can be used as starting or ending points for each phrase.
However, a melodic skeleton can also include non-chord tones, which are notes that do not belong to the current chord but add variety and interest to the melody. Non-chord tones can be classified into different types according to their function and relation to the chord tones. Some common types of non-chord tones are:
- Passing tone: a note that moves by step between two chord tones. For example, in C major, D is a passing tone between C and E.
- Neighbor tone: a note that moves by step away from and back to a chord tone. For example, in C major, D is a neighbor tone to C.
- Suspension: a note that is held over from the previous chord and then resolves down by step to a chord tone. For example, in C major, G is a suspension over F major that resolves to F.
- Anticipation: a note that moves by step to a chord tone before the chord changes. For example, in C major, E is an anticipation of F major.
- Appoggiatura (Incomplete Neighbor): a note that leaps to a non-chord tone and then resolves by step to a chord tone. For example, in C major, B is an appoggiatura to G major that resolves to G. The opposite of this is called an escape tone since the chord tone is approached by step and left by leap. Many theorists now group these two kinds of non-chord tones into an embellishment known as an incomplete neighbor.
By using non-chord tones strategically, composers can create more exciting and expressive melodies that contrast with or embellish the harmonic structure. However, non-chord tones should be used sparingly and not randomly, as they can create confusion or dissonance if not resolved properly. Don't simply include a non-chord tone for the sake of dissonance.
A melodic skeleton can be written as a series of notes on a staff or as a series of numbers indicating the scale degrees of each note. For example, in C major, the scale degrees are 1 for C, 2 for D, 3 for E, etc. A melodic skeleton can also be sung or played on an instrument to test its effectiveness and musicality.
A melodic skeleton is not a final product but a tool for composing music. It can be modified, expanded, or refined to create a more complete and satisfying melody. A melodic skeleton can also be used to create variations or develop motifs throughout a musical work.
Creating a melodic skeleton is one of the techniques that composers can use to unify the harmony and melody in a musical work. It can help composers to create melodies that are coherent, logical and memorable. For more information, watch this tutorial on how to create a melodic skeleton.
One of the best ways to learn how to compose with harmony is to get advice from an expert. Kevin Ure is a composer and music theorist who teaches music theory and ear training courses at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He is also the instructor of The Composers Studio at UreMusic.com, where he offers online lessons and resources for aspiring composers. He has composed several works for various ensembles and solo instruments, such as Soliloquy, The Beast of Gevaudan, and The Garden Tower.
In this blog post, we will share some tips from Kevin Ure on how to compose an original piece with harmony. These tips are based on his YouTube videos, where he explains various aspects of music composition in an accessible and engaging way.
A melodic skeleton is a simple outline of your melody that shows its basic shape and direction. It can be composed of single notes or chords representing your piece's main harmonic points. A melodic skeleton can help you establish your piece's structure, form, and tonality before adding more details.
To create a melodic skeleton, you can use one of these methods:
- Use a scale or mode as a basis for your melody. For example, you can use the major or minor scales to create melodies with a clear tonal center.
- Use intervals as building blocks for your melody. For example, you can use perfect fifths or minor thirds to create melodies that have a strong harmonic implication.
- Use motifs as units for your melody. A motif is a short musical idea that can be repeated or varied throughout your piece. For example, you can use rhythmic or melodic motifs to create coherent and contrast melodies.
Once you have a melodic skeleton, you can add more harmonic layers to enrich your piece. Harmonic layers are additional voices or parts that accompany your main melody. They can be composed of chords, counterpoint lines (independent melodies), or textures (background sounds).
To add harmonic layers, you can use one of these methods:
- Use chord progressions as frameworks for your harmony. A chord progression is a sequence of chords that creates movement and tension-resolution in your piece. For example, you can use common chord progressions such as I-V-vi-IV (C-G-Am-F) or ii-V-I (Dm-G-C) to create harmonies that support your melody.
- Use counterpoint techniques as tools for creating harmony through melody. Counterpoint is the art of combining two or more melodies that are independent but harmonious with each other. For example, you can use species counterpoint (a method of learning counterpoint by following strict rules) or free counterpoint (a method of composing counterpoint by using your own creativity) to create harmonies that enhance your melody.
- Use textures as elements for creating harmony through sound quality. Texture is the way multiple sounds are combined in music, creating different effects such as density (how many sounds), timbre (what kind of sounds), dynamics (how loud or soft), and articulation (how smooth or detached). For example, you can use homophonic texture (one melody with chordal accompaniment), polyphonic texture (multiple independent melodies), or monophonic texture (one single melody) to create harmonies that vary your piece.
After you have a melodic skeleton and harmonic layers, you can add more expressive details to make your piece more interesting and unique. Expressive details are elements that affect the mood, emotion, and character of your piece. They can be composed of dynamics (loudness), articulation (how notes are played), timbre (sound quality), or ornamentation (decorative notes).
To add expressive details, you can use one of these methods:
Use dynamics to create contrast and emphasis in your piece. Dynamics are symbols that indicate how loud or soft to play a note or a section. For example, you can use forte (f) to indicate loudness or piano (p) to indicate softness. You can also use crescendo (<) to indicate gradually increasing loudness or diminuendo (>) to indicate gradually decreasing loudness.
Use articulation to create variety and expression in your piece. Articulation is the way you play a note, such as smoothly or sharply. For example, you can use legato (a curved line) to indicate smooth and connected notes or staccato (a dot) to indicate short and detached notes. You can also use accents (^) to indicate strong emphasis or tenuto (-) to indicate sustained notes.
Use timbre to create color and texture in your piece. Timbre is the quality of sound that distinguishes different instruments or voices. For example, you can use different instruments such as piano, guitar, violin, or flute to create different timbres. You can also use different techniques such as plucking, bowing, blowing, or singing to create different timbres.
Use ornamentation to create embellishment and flair in your piece. Ornamentation is the addition of extra notes that decorate the main melody. For example, you can use trills (rapid alternation between two adjacent notes), turns (quick movement around a central note), mordents (quick single alternation with a lower or higher note), or grace notes (quick extra notes before the main note).
By following these tips, you can compose music that has melody, harmony, and expression.
Reviewed by Kevin Ure on March 20, 2023
1. Know your instruments. Each string instrument has its own characteristics, such as range, timbre, dynamics and articulation. You should be familiar with the capabilities and limitations of each instrument and the players' preferences. For example, string players generally prefer keys with sharps rather than flats, as they are easier to play on their instruments. You should also know how to write idiomatic parts that suit the natural tendencies of each instrument, such as using open strings, harmonics or double stops.
2. Use different textures. One of the advantages of writing for string quartet is that you can create various textures by combining or contrasting the four instruments differently. You can use monophonic texture (one melody), polyphonic texture (multiple independent melodies), chordal texture (harmonized blocks) or homophonic texture (melody with accompaniment). You can also vary the density, rhythm and register of each texture to create contrast and interest.
3. Explore bowing techniques. Another way to add variety and expression to your music is to use different bowing techniques that affect the sound quality and articulation of the strings. Some common bowing techniques are legato (smooth and connected), staccato (short and detached), spiccato (bouncing off the string), pizzicato (plucking with fingers), col legno (striking with wood), sul ponticello (near the bridge) or sul tasto (over the fingerboard). You can also use slurs, accents or dynamics to shape your phrases.
4. Listen to examples. One of the best ways to learn how to orchestrate for string quartet is to listen to examples from different composers and genres. You can find inspiration from classical masters such as Haydn, Mozart or Beethoven; romantic composers such as Schubert, Mendelssohn or Brahms; modern composers such as Bartok, Shostakovich or Britten; or even pop artists such as The Beatles, Radiohead or Coldplay. Pay attention to how they use the instruments individually and collectively, how they create contrast and balance between parts, how they develop their musical ideas and how they achieve their desired effects.
5. Experiment and have fun! Finally, feel free to experiment with different ideas and techniques when writing for string quartet. There is no one right way to orchestrate for this ensemble; you can be creative and expressive according to your own musical vision and style. The most important thing is to have fun with it!
I hope you enjoyed this blog post about orchestration for string quartet. If you want more tips on composing music for strings or other instruments check out our book, The Elements of Music Composition.
Reviewed by Kevin Ure on 3/18/2023
But how do you choose the best notation program for music? There are many factors to consider, such as:
- Your budget: Some notation programs are free or low-cost, while others require a subscription or a one-time purchase. You should compare the features and benefits of each option and decide what suits your needs and wallet.
- Your skill level: Some notation programs are designed for beginners or students who want to learn the basics of music theory and notation. Others are more advanced and offer professional tools for composers, arrangers and engravers. You should choose a program that matches your current level of knowledge and experience, but also allows you to grow and improve.
- Your platform: Some notation programs are available for Windows, Mac or Linux computers, while others are web-based or compatible with mobile devices such as iPads. You should choose a program that works well with your preferred device and operating system.
- Your style: Some notation programs are more suitable for certain genres or types of music than others. For example, some programs have special features for classical music, jazz, pop, rock or film scoring. You should choose a program that supports your musical style and preferences.
To help you make an informed decision, here are some of the most popular notation programs for music in 2023:
MuseScore is one of the most widely used free and open-source notation programs for music. It has a user-friendly interface that lets you enter notes with a mouse, keyboard or MIDI device. It also has a large library of sounds and instruments that you can use to play back your scores.
MuseScore supports many features such as lyrics, chords symbols, dynamics, articulations, slurs, ties, tuplets, repeats, voltas, codas, segno, dal segno, al fine, al coda, key signatures, time signatures, clefs, transposition, grace notes, ornaments, arpeggios, glissandi, tremolos, and more.
You can also import and export files in various formats such as MusicXML (a standard format for exchanging musical data between different applications), MIDI (a protocol for communicating musical information between electronic devices), PDF (a format for printing documents), MP3 (a format for compressing audio files) and WAV (a format for storing uncompressed audio files).
MuseScore is available for Windows, Mac and Linux computers as well as iPad. You can also access MuseScore online through its web app.
MuseScore is ideal for beginners who want to learn music notation or hobbyists who want to create simple scores without spending any money.
Sibelius is one of the most powerful and professional notation programs for music. It was created by Avid Technology who also developed Pro Tools (a popular digital audio workstation). Sibelius has a reputation for being one of the "heavy hitters"in music notation software.
Sibelius has an intuitive interface that lets you enter notes with a mouse keyboard or MIDI device. It also has an extensive library of sounds and instruments that you can use to play back your scores.
Sibelius supports many features such as lyrics chords symbols dynamics articulations slurs ties tuplets repeats voltas codas segno dal segno al fine al coda key signatures time signatures clefs transposition grace notes ornaments arpeggios glissandi tremolos and more.
You can also import and export files in various formats such as MusicXML MIDI PDF MP3 WAV and more. Sibelius is available for Windows and Mac computers as well as iPad. You can also access Sibelius online through its cloud service.
Sibelius is ideal for advanced users who want to create complex scores with high-quality results.
Memorizing your lines for a play can be a daunting task. You may feel overwhelmed by the amount of text you have to remember and the pressure of performing in front of an audience. But don’t worry, there are some simple and effective ways to help you master your lines in no time. In this article, we will show you how to use repetition, association, visualization, emotion and practice to memorize your lines for a play with ease and confidence.
The first step to memorizing your lines is to rehearse them as much as possible. Pay attention to the other parts in the play and learn about the context in which your character exists. Don’t just listen for the cues that signal your entrance. When there is a dress rehearsal, stay the entire time and watch the play. This will help you understand the flow and structure of the story and how your lines fit into it.
The second step to memorizing your lines is to understand their meaning and purpose. Listen carefully to the lines that come immediately before and after your own lines. Try to grasp the logic and emotion behind them. Why does your character say what he or she says? How does he or she feel about it? How does it affect the other characters? Knowing these answers will help you remember your lines better and deliver them more naturally.
The third step to memorizing your lines is to break them into small segments. Instead of trying to memorize one long sentence at a time, memorize it by dividing it into two or three parts. If the sentences are short, just memorize one sentence at a time. Build each sentence and segment onto the next one by completely memorizing one part before moving on to the next. Repeat each part until you can say it without looking at the script.
The fourth step to memorizing your lines is to use audio and visual aids. Stand before a mirror and watch your lips as you read the lines aloud. You will find that in a performance, if you can recall what your lips looked like when reading a line, you can often recall the words as well. This technique works exceptionally well for some people. Another option is to record yourself reading your lines with an audio device or an app on your phone. Then listen back to it several times and try to repeat along with it.
The fifth and final step to memorizing your lines is to practice them with others. Find someone who can read the other parts in the play with you or join a study group with other actors from the same play. Practicing with others will help you get used to saying your lines out loud, responding to cues, adjusting your tone and volume, expressing emotions and gestures, and dealing with distractions or mistakes.
By following these five steps, you can improve your memory skills and enhance your performance on stage. Remember to rehearse often, understand context, chunk information, use audiovisual aids, and practice with others. With these tips, you will be ready to shine in any play you choose.
"To hell with all these theories, if they always serve only to block the evolution of art and if their positive achievement consists in nothing more than helping those who will compose badly anyway to learn it quickly."
Schoenberg's music is often performed poorly and misunderstood and is seen as overly formulaic. The procedure of 12-tone is not something Schoenberg invented; he discovered it through his own process of composing and analyzing his works. His texts on the process of composition are not intended to teach composers how to compose but instead offer models on the process of composition. Teaching would require showing a student how to compose music, but the composing process differs for each student. Composing should come naturally to a composer, and while a composition can be enhanced with theories, the resulting piece will come across as inauthentic. Models are intended to demonstrate the logic that other composers have used to compose music, but composition should not be limited to the techniques of past composers.
It may seem that I am against music theory, but it has a place in the composing process. Music theory can teach composers about the music that already exists. It also offers a common language to think about and discuss the abstract art of composing music. There are at least two ways to learn about what already exists in the world:
The acoustic guitar has six strings that each play a different series of pitches and have a unique timbre. Acoustic guitars serve several purposes and are used in various contexts, including classical, country, popular, jazz, and blues music. An acoustic guitar is an instrument that does not require external power to create sound. These instruments have a built-in chamber that serves to amplify and distribute the sound without the use of an amplifier. The acoustic guitar is capable of playing any style or genre of music. However, there are some styles in which the acoustic guitar is featured prominently.
Country music can be broken down loosely into both old and new country. Both styles of music make extensive use of the acoustic guitar. When you think of a country music star or see a picture, they are almost always sitting with their acoustic guitar. The guitar in country music often strums chords vigorously to support the lead singer and vocal lines. As with most performance music, country music also heavily uses the guitar as a visual prop.
While the term classical can refer to a period of composers between 1750 and about 1830, there is also classical music with a lowercase "c." Classical music, in this context, is any music from the Renaissance to the modern period. In classical music, the guitar is featured prominently because of its ability to play in a fashion similar to the piano. Chords and melodies can be played simultaneously making the guitar an excellent solo or ensemble instrument for classical music. Agustín Barrios, Mauro Giuliani, and Sergei Orekhov are all composers who have written for classical acoustic guitar.
Mariachi music involves the use of upbeat rhythms and fast-moving melodies. Mariachi groups typically include small traveling groups of four to 12 people. The guitar plays a central role in mariachi music and often plays the lead and guides the ensemble. The ability to play chords makes it an ideal candidate to back up brass and string instruments in the ensemble. The guitar is well-suited to play mariachi music as it carries easily and provides texture and rhythm to the ensemble.
A wide variety of acoustic and electric guitars are available on the market. You can even find books that provide you with an illustrated review.
When it's time to look for a tutor, it's essential to take some time to do your research. Looking for a teacher will save time, money, and frustration during lessons. The teacher’s job is to guide students and advise them on how to improve their abilities. It is not always possible to be your best critic; even professional musicians still take lessons to get that valuable second opinion. It is essential to look for a teacher you can relate to, teaches to your learning style, and takse teaching seriously. You should also decide from the beginning if you want to take it online or in-person. With online lessons, you may be able to access more prominent instructors who aren't available locally. In-person lessons are essential for some students who need demonstrations and don't want to deal with technology.
Guitar techniques make it easier to play quickly and efficiently. Virtuoso guitarists have complete control over their instruments. They know the right approach for each situation and can switch rapidly and seamlessly between several different techniques. To become a virtuoso, you must first master the traditional method of guitar playing, then learn to play the advanced techniques comfortably. Any serious guitarist must learn virtuoso techniques to play at a high level.
The typical guitarist will play the guitar using only downstrokes or upstrokes. This is perfectly normal and an acceptable way of playing. Virtuoso players also know how to quickly alternate the stroke, using a mixture of down- and upstrokes. This technique allows players to perform exceptionally quickly since they don’t have to wait for their arm to return to the original starting position. To perform this accurately, you should use the tip of the pick to increase your speed. Start slow and gradually begin to increase your speed. A good rule of thumb for increasing speed is to use a metronome and increase the speed by one tick per day. At the end of the week, drop down 4 ticks, and continue the process. In this way, you will continue to build speed and accuracy. Timing is important, so you should always use a metronome.
String skipping produces a sound that utilizes the individual qualities of each string to play a melody over a wide interval range quickly. For instance, the lowest and thickest strings on the guitar have a darker quality, while the higher strings have a light and thin quality. By skipping between strings, the guitarist gains the characteristics of each string in a single melody and dramatically increases the distance between pitches. This technique creates large melodic leaps in the melody, since moving from one string to the next creates a significant change in pitch. Without the string-skipping technique, the guitarist would have to jump from one end of a string to the other. However, it's also important to be able to play a piece on one string as much as possible. Skipping between different strings may change the timbre, making the piece seem less coherent. Knowing when to artfully apply a string skipping technique is essential to mastering your instrument.
Sweep picking is similar to strumming on the guitar, but it allows the guitarists to play sections extremely quickly. The technique requires the guitarist to be able to use both hands equally well. Unlike strumming, with sweep picking, you want to make each note clearly heard. In a strumming technique, one hand will firmly hold down the strummed pitches, creating a blurred effect. With sweep picking, you still hold down the pitches, but you must immediately let go of each pitch when articulated. This establishes the independence of each pitch and allows all of the notes to sound clear. Again, it's critical to use a metronome for any new technique that requires agility. You will gain better control over your fingers by playing in time with a metronome. Slower is always better at first.
Economy picking uses a mixture of alternate and sweep picking to play even faster than with either technique by itself. With alternate picking, the hands move up and down regardless of the string. Economy picking uses a single string, which gradually changes timbre as you move along the string. One possibility for economy picking requires the guitarist to use the alternate picking technique as long as the music stays on one string. The moment they switch to another string, they switch to sweep picking, then continue with alternate picking.
While you can often learn to play guitar without an instructor, your instructor can help guide you and ensure you aren't making mistakes with your technique. Once you learn a technique incorrectly, it becomes more difficult to correct.
“Guitar Techniques”; Michael Mueller; 2008
Selecting the right song for an audition significantly affects your chances of getting a call-back. Whether you plan to audition for jazz, rock, blues, or opera, you must research appropriate music for the group. Personal preference may also play a role in the selection of music, but ultimately, you should play to the tastes and requirements of the group holding the audition. Some preparatory work and research make it possible to select an appropriate song.
Learn about the ensemble holding the audition. Determine the style of music and what role you will perform. For example, a group that hires Broadway singers will likely want to hear music from Broadway and may be looking for a singer with range and versatility. If you audition for a choir, you should choose pieces demonstrating your ability to blend and serve as a soloist. If opera is the goal, you'll want to focus primarily on solo works. Listen to performances of the ensemble ahead of time so that you can determine the style they are looking for.
Assess your range and capabilities. The song you select is one of the few parts of an audition you have control over. Select a song that shows off your range and capabilities. Don’t choose a technical piece if you sing best with lyrical songs. If you have a high range, select a piece demonstrating that range. Knowing your strengths and weaknesses can help you select a work that makes sense for your current ability. An audition may include sight-singing and prepared pieces, so if you can choose your own song, this allows them to gauge your range and capabilities more effectively.
Prepare a song you can sing from memory. Memorize the song well in advance to reduce the possibility of forgetting your words in the middle of the piece. If you have trouble memorizing songs, don’t pick an overly complicated song. If you have great difficulty with memorization, select a piece with repetitive phrases to minimize the memorization you must complete. Memory can be improved, and it would be beneficial to start memorizing every song you are working through. Even if there isn't enough time to help you with the next audition, memorizing a piece ensures you have thoroughly learned the work and will gradually increase your ability to remember more complex works.
Music theory can help you memorize a work. By learning to identify the major sections, types of phrases, chord progressions, and other "pillars" of a composition, you can better keep track of where you are in the music. You don't need an extensive understanding of music theory, but you should be able to identify certain progressions by ear. Many times, the beginning of a phrase will stay the same and the second part of a phrase will change. Music theory can also help you interpret a work.
Select a song that is difficult enough to show off your expertise and minimize any weaknesses but not so difficult that you are prone to making a mistake in the audition. Remember that the judges expect you to have this piece well rehearsed. Consider another song if you have a song that shows off your high range but exposes a weaker low range. In most cases, the difficulty level is less important than the quality of your voice and interpretation. Learn more about how composers write music and listen to other performances to start creating your own interpretation.
When assessing the difficulty level, you should also determine the appropriate style for the piece. Don't simply add an articulation or play a repeated section differently for the sake of making a piece less repetitive. You must understand the style and time period of any piece you perform. Conduct research with every new song you sing, and you'll find that your ability to perform future works will improve. Every audition is a chance to test yourself; even a failed audition should be considered a success. The fact that you made it to the audition and learned from the experience offers invaluable training.
When you practice your song, start slowly and aim to avoid making mistakes. If you make a mistake, slow down and perform it five times correctly without making a mistake. The brain doesn’t differentiate between a mistake and the intended outcome very well, so you should aim to perform the piece correctly every time no matter how slow you take the piece. Take some time to map out the phrases, and sing one phrase at a time until you sing perfectly. You should also record yourself to listen to your performance and make tweaks as needed. Avoid starting from the beginning every time you practice the piece. Breaking the song into different sections and phrases can allow you to dedicate time to each and learn the piece more thoroughly.
If you have anxiety, feeling confident that you can perform the piece will help you improve your ability. Some performers flex every muscle in their body and then release the tension to relieve stress. It's essential to find ways to deal with your anxiety, and you may find that meditation, exercise, or finding outlets outside of music can help improve your ability to perform. Remember that singing is simply a creative outlet, and your experiences in life can improve your ability to perform. For severe cases of anxiety beyond performance anxiety, you may need to work with a doctor to discover the best course of action.
Making a mistake could make the judges lose confidence in your ability. However, if you keep singing and don’t get flustered by your error, it will show that you have competent performance skills. Look through several pieces before making a final decision. Don't apologize for any mistakes you make when you perform the audition. If you make a mistake, keep going and don't draw attention to your errors. A judge will be less forgiving if you need to start over than if you sang through the entire piece without stopping. Treat the audition like a performance, and take a brief moment to center yourself before you begin.
